6 Steps to Ordering Forged Steel Products - Greg Sewell Forgings

Navigating the world of steel forging can often seem daunting, especially when it comes to ordering forged products tailored to your specific needs. Our comprehensive guide will break down each step in detail – from your initial concept to the final order – so you can confidently order your next steel forged product. 

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1. Understand your requirements 

Understanding your requirements is the first and perhaps the most critical step when ordering forged steel products. This involves clearly defining your project goals and outlining the specifications that the product must meet.

Start by clearly defining what you want to achieve with the forged steel product. Are you looking to enhance strength, durability, or resistance to wear and tear in a specific application? Or, are you interested in achieving a precise shape or size that cannot be obtained through other manufacturing methods? Understanding these goals will guide your decision-making process throughout the ordering journey.

Specifications are the detailed descriptions of what you need in your forged steel product and they include:

• Dimensions
• Material choice 
• Weight 
• Application 
• Quantity 
• Tolerances
• Finishing requirements

If you need support with any of the specifications, your steel forging partner will be able to aid you. For example, at Greg Sewell Forgings we often help our clients with choosing the best material and forging process for their products. 

2. Select a steel forging partner 

After defining your project requirements, the next step is to select a reliable steel forging company that can meet those needs. Below are some things to consider when making your choice. 

Track Record: Look for a company with a proven track record in producing high-quality forged steel products. This often indicates a high level of expertise and reliability. They should be able to provide examples of past work that aligns with your project requirements.

Certifications: These can be a good indicator of a company’s commitment to quality and adherence to industry standards. Look for certifications such as ISO (Quality Management Systems) or specific certifications related to steel forging. In addition, ensure product testing is done by an independent third party like NATA (National Association of Testing Laboratories). These can provide assurance that the company has robust quality control processes in place.

Experience: The company’s experience is another important factor to consider. A company with a long history in steel forging is likely to have encountered and solved a wide range of challenges, making them better equipped to handle your project.

Capabilities: The company should have the necessary equipment and technical capabilities to meet your project requirements. Ask about their capacity to handle the size, volume, and complexity of your project, and whether they offer any additional services like design assistance, forging heat treatment, or finishing.

Communication and Customer Service: Good communication is critical in any project. The company should be responsive to your inquiries and able to provide clear, detailed information about their processes and capabilities. They should also show a willingness to understand your needs and work with you to meet your project goals.

For more information on how to choose the best company, read our blog on What makes a good steel forging partner?

3. Enquire about cost and lead time

Once you’ve identified a reliable steel forging company, the next step is to obtain a cost estimation and understand the expected lead time. This will ensure there are no surprises later in the project and help you plan accordingly.

Cost estimation usually incorporates material costs, labour costs, tooling costs, additional processes (such as heat treatment, machining, or finishing), overhead costs, and shipping costs. The steel forging company will supply you with a final figure made up from these components. 

Lead time, on the other hand, is made up of three components: 

• Manufacturing Time: This includes the time it takes to prepare the materials, manufacture the dies (if needed), run the forging process, and complete any additional processes such as heat treatment or machining.
• Inspection and Packing Time: After manufacturing, the parts need to be inspected for quality and packed for shipping, which can add to the lead time.
• Shipping Time: The time it takes to ship the parts from the forging company to your location should also be factored into the lead time.

4. Provide drawing or sample 

The first step in the design phase is to provide the design team with technical drawings, specifications, or prototypes of the steel product you want to forge. This should include all the details you’ve defined in your project requirements, including dimensions, material type, tolerances, and any special features or requirements.

The design and engineering team at a steel forging company are experts in their field. They understand the intricacies of the forging process, how different materials behave under forging conditions, and how to optimise designs for manufacturability. Take advantage of this expertise by seeking their advice and feedback on your design.

In addition, the team can also help you modify your design to better suit the forging process. This could involve changes like adding draft angles to make part removal from the die easier, adjusting dimensions to ensure even material flow, or altering features to reduce the need for complex tooling. These changes can improve the quality of the final product, increase production speed, and reduce costs. 

5. Receive sample confirmation 

Before proceeding to full-scale production, it’s common to produce a small batch of samples for testing. This allows you to verify that the forged parts meet your specifications and have the required physical and mechanical properties. Sample testing can involve a variety of checks, including dimensional checks, visual inspection, and destructive and non-destructive testing.

Once the samples have been tested and meet all specifications and quality requirements, you should receive sample confirmation from the forging company. This is your opportunity to examine the sample parts closely and confirm that they meet your expectations in terms of dimensions, weight, material, surface finish, and other key features. 

If any issues are identified during sample testing or inspection, it’s crucial to communicate these to the forging company promptly. They can then adjust the forging process or die design as needed and produce new samples for testing.

6. Place your order 

To finalise your order, you’ll typically need to sign a formal purchase order with the steel forging company. This document should detail the scope of the project, including the final design specifications, quantity of parts to be forged, material type, delivery dates, and pricing. Before signing, make sure you understand all the terms and conditions and ensure that they align with your previous discussions and agreements.

The purchase order should also include the payment terms. It’s common for steel forging companies to require a deposit before starting production, especially for large or custom orders. The remaining amount is typically due upon completion of the project or at agreed-upon milestones.

Discover Greg Sewell Forgings

At Greg Sewell Forgings, we have 90 years of experience providing Australia with forged steel products. Our experienced and dedicated team works closely with every client to ensure they receive all the support they need during the forging process. From product design to forging testing, we are there to provide an end-to-end service.

Imagine the strength and durability of stainless steel, meticulously shaped into a component that can withstand the harshest environments. But can you forge stainless steel to achieve such feats? The answer is a resounding yes. Stainless steel forging combines the robust properties of this versatile metal with precision engineering, creating parts that excel in performance and longevity. This guide delves into the intricate processes, from selecting the right grades to understanding the benefits and applications of forged stainless steel. Ready to uncover the secrets behind crafting these resilient components? Let’s dive into the world of stainless steel forging and explore its transformative potential.

Introduction to Stainless Steel Forging

Stainless Steel Forging

Stainless steel forging is a critical process in manufacturing, especially in industries that require components with high strength, corrosion resistance, and durability. This process involves heating and shaping stainless steel to improve its mechanical properties, making it suitable for various demanding applications.

Material Selection

Choosing the right stainless steel grade is essential. Common options include:

• 300 Series (e.g., 304, 316) for excellent corrosion resistance and formability.
• 400 Series (e.g., 410, 420) for higher hardness.
• Duplex Stainless Steel (e.g., ) for a balance of strength and corrosion resistance.

Heating

The stainless steel billet is heated to between 927°C and °C, depending on the specific grade. This careful control of temperature ensures proper shaping without overheating or causing grain coarsening.

Forging

Forging methods include:

• Open-Die Forging: Ideal for large, simple shapes.
• Closed-Die Forging: Suitable for precise, complex shapes.
• Free Forging: Allows for custom designs without confining dies.

Cooling

After forging, the material undergoes cooling treatments. The method varies with the type of stainless steel:

• Austenitic Stainless Steels: Typically air-cooled or water-cooled.
• Martensitic Steels: Require slow cooling to avoid stress and cracking.

Advantages of Forged Stainless Steel

Forged stainless steel boasts improved strength, toughness, and fatigue life due to its refined grain structure. It also offers superior corrosion resistance and efficient material use, making it cost-effective.

Applications of Forged Stainless Steel

Forged stainless steel is used in various industries:

• Power Plants: High-strength, heat-resistant components.
• Offshore Drilling: Durable parts for harsh environments.
• Solar Energy Plants: Long-lasting, corrosion-resistant components.
• Manufacturing: Critical parts like water meters and pumps.

Heat Treatment in Stainless Steel Forging

Heat treatment processes like quenching and annealing are essential to modify the mechanical properties of forged stainless steel. These treatments help achieve specific characteristics such as increased hardness, strength, and ductility.

Comparison with Regular Stainless Steel

Forged stainless steel offers superior performance compared to regular stainless steel, particularly in terms of strength, toughness, and fatigue life. The forging process refines the grain structure, ensuring the material is free from internal defects and thus more reliable for demanding applications.

Materials and Processes in Stainless Steel Forging

Common Materials Used in Stainless Steel Forging

Stainless steel forging uses specific grades chosen for their mechanical properties and suitability for various applications. These materials are designed to endure high temperatures, pressure, and corrosive environments.

Austenitic Stainless Steels (300 Series)

Austenitic stainless steels (300 Series), like 304 and 316, are known for their excellent corrosion resistance, high ductility, and non-magnetic properties, making them ideal for chemical processing and marine industries.

Martensitic Stainless Steels (400 Series)

Martensitic grades (400 Series), such as 410 and 420, offer higher hardness and strength, suitable for aerospace and automotive components.

Duplex Stainless Steels

Duplex stainless steels, like , provide superior strength and corrosion resistance, especially in chloride or saltwater environments, making them perfect for marine and petrochemical applications.

Key Processes in Stainless Steel Forging

The forging process transforms stainless steel into high-strength components through controlled mechanical and thermal techniques. Each step is critical to achieving the desired shape, properties, and performance.

Heating

The stainless steel billet is heated to temperatures between 927°C and °C, depending on the grade. Precise temperature control ensures the material is ready for deformation without grain coarsening or overheating.

Forging Techniques

Different forging techniques are employed based on the complexity and precision required for the final product.

• Open-Die Forging: Used for large, simple shapes like shafts and rings, this process involves compressing the heated billet between flat dies.
• Closed-Die Forging: Ideal for precise components like gears and valves, this technique compresses the billet within a die cavity to create intricate shapes.
• Impression-Die Forging: Similar to closed-die forging, it uses pre-designed dies for consistent production quality.

Cooling Methods

• Air Cooling: Maintains corrosion resistance and ductility for austenitic steels.
• Controlled Cooling: Prevents stress cracks and distortion in martensitic grades.

Heat Treatments

• Solution Annealing: Enhances corrosion resistance and relieves stress.
• Quenching: Increases hardness and strength.
• Tempering: Balances toughness and ductility by reducing brittleness after quenching.

Finishing Operations

After forging, finishing processes are applied to meet specific surface and dimensional requirements. Techniques include machining, grinding, and polishing. These operations ensure the forged stainless steel component meets the desired specifications and performs effectively in its intended application.

Benefits and Applications of Stainless Steel Forgings

Benefits of Stainless Steel Forgings

Stainless steel forgings offer significant benefits, making them a top choice in industries that require high performance and durability.

Superior Strength, Structural Integrity, and Corrosion Resistance

The forging process refines the internal grain structure of stainless steel, enhancing its mechanical strength and reliability. This structural refinement ensures that forged parts can withstand high stress and heavy loads. Additionally, stainless steel’s inherent corrosion resistance makes it ideal for use in marine, chemical, and industrial environments.

High-Temperature and Low-Temperature Performance

Forged stainless steel maintains its mechanical properties across a wide temperature range. Its ability to perform reliably in extreme heat or cold environments makes it indispensable in industries such as aerospace, energy, and manufacturing, where thermal stability is critical.

Are you interested in learning more about marine forging? Contact us today to secure an expert consultation!

Durability and Longevity

Stainless steel forgings combine strength, toughness, and corrosion resistance for longer operational lifespans. Components require less frequent replacement, leading to lower maintenance costs and improved overall efficiency in industrial systems.

Precision and Customization

Forging allows precise control over shapes and dimensions, accommodating complex designs and exact specifications. This adaptability enables manufacturers to produce custom components tailored to specific applications without compromising performance.

Applications of Stainless Steel Forgings

Due to their unique properties, stainless steel forgings are integral to a variety of industries and applications.

Aerospace Industry

In aerospace, forged stainless steel is used to manufacture high-strength, corrosion-resistant components such as turbine parts, landing gear, and structural supports. These parts must endure extreme conditions, including high temperatures, pressure, and mechanical stress.

Oil and Gas Sector

The oil and gas industry relies on stainless steel forgings for critical components like valves, flanges, and fittings. These parts must resist corrosive environments, high pressures, and temperature fluctuations, making stainless steel an ideal material.

Automotive Industry

Forged stainless steel is utilized in automotive applications for components such as crankshafts, gears, and suspension parts. These parts require high durability, excellent load-bearing capacity, and long service life to ensure vehicle reliability.

Construction and Infrastructure

In construction, stainless steel forgings are used for structural components like beams, connectors, and fasteners. Their corrosion resistance and strength contribute to the safety and longevity of buildings, bridges, and other infrastructure projects.

Marine Equipment

Marine environments are highly corrosive due to constant exposure to saltwater. Stainless steel forgings, used in propellers, shafts, rudders, and anchor chains, offer superior seawater corrosion resistance and ensure long-term functionality.

Medical and Surgical Equipment

The biocompatibility and hygienic properties of stainless steel make it an ideal choice for surgical instruments, medical implants, and diagnostic tools. Forged components offer high precision, durability, and corrosion resistance, essential for maintaining sterility and performance in medical settings.

Energy and Power Generation

Stainless steel forgings are critical in power plants, including nuclear, thermal, and renewable energy facilities. Components such as turbines, heat exchangers, and pressure vessels benefit from the material’s strength, heat resistance, and corrosion protection.

Food and Beverage Industry

In food processing and packaging, forged stainless steel is used for equipment like mixers, grinders, and piping systems. The material’s ease of cleaning, resistance to contamination, and durability ensure compliance with strict hygiene standards.

Versatility in Applications

The combination of strength, corrosion resistance, and durability makes stainless steel forgings highly versatile, capable of meeting the demands of diverse industries. Whether for harsh environments, precision components, or long-lasting infrastructure, stainless steel forgings consistently deliver superior performance.

Choosing the Right Stainless Steel Grades for Forging

Key Factors in Choosing Stainless Steel Grades

Choosing the right stainless steel grade for forging requires understanding key factors to match the material to its intended use.

Operating Environment

The environment in which the forged component will be used significantly influences the choice of stainless steel grade. For environments requiring high corrosion resistance, austenitic grades such as 304 and 316 are preferred due to their high chromium and nickel content. Grade 316, with added molybdenum, offers superior resistance to chlorides and is ideal for marine applications.

• Temperature: Austenitic grades also excel in high and low-temperature applications, maintaining their mechanical properties across a broad temperature range.

Mechanical Qualities

Stainless steel grades differ in strength, ductility, and toughness, which are key to the forged component’s performance.

• Strength and Ductility: Austenitic grades like 304 and 316 provide excellent ductility and formability, making them suitable for complex shapes and high-stress applications. Martensitic grades, such as 440C, offer higher strength but lower ductility.
• Toughness: Austenitic steels are known for their toughness, making them ideal for applications requiring impact resistance and high fatigue strength.

Formability

The ease with which stainless steel can be shaped during the forging process is another important consideration.

• Austenitic Grades: Grades 304 and 302 are highly formable and can be easily forged into complex shapes without cracking.
• Ferritic Grades: Grade 430 offers good formability but is less malleable than austenitic grades, making it more suitable for simpler shapes.

Material Cost and Availability

The cost and availability of stainless steel grades are important factors in the selection process.

• Austenitic Grades: Generally, more expensive due to their higher alloy content but offer excellent performance in terms of corrosion resistance and mechanical properties.
• Ferritic and Martensitic Grades: Typically less expensive and more readily available, making them suitable for applications where cost is a primary concern.

Common Stainless Steel Grades for Forging

Several stainless steel grades are commonly used in forging, each offering unique properties and advantages.

Austenitic Grades

• 304 Stainless Steel: Known for its excellent corrosion resistance, ease of fabrication, and versatility, 304 is widely used in the food, chemical, and architectural industries.
• 316 Stainless Steel: With added molybdenum, 316 provides higher corrosion resistance than 304, particularly against chlorides, making it suitable for marine and chemical processing environments.

Ferritic Grades

• 430 Stainless Steel: Less expensive and non-magnetic, 430 is used in automotive trim, appliances, and food processing equipment where good corrosion resistance and formability are required.

Martensitic Grades

• 410 and 420 Stainless Steel: These grades offer high strength and hardness, making them ideal for cutlery, surgical instruments, and fasteners. However, they are less formable and more brittle compared to austenitic grades.

Duplex Grades

• Stainless Steel: Combines the properties of austenitic and ferritic stainless steels, offering high strength, excellent corrosion resistance, and good toughness. It is used in applications requiring a balance of these properties, such as in the oil and gas industry and marine environments.

Forging Process Considerations

The forging process itself also influences the choice of stainless steel grade, as different grades require specific forging temperatures and heat treatments. Austenitic grades are typically forged at temperatures between °F and °F (927°C to °C). Precise control of the forging temperature is essential to avoid overheating or grain coarsening. Post-forging heat treatments, such as annealing, quenching, and tempering, are crucial for achieving the desired mechanical properties. For instance, martensitic grades require careful heat treatment to enhance their hardness and strength while avoiding brittleness.

Advantages of Stainless Steel Forging

Forging stainless steel offers numerous benefits, including enhanced mechanical properties and corrosion resistance.

• Enhanced Strength: The forging process aligns the grain structure of stainless steel, resulting in increased mechanical strength and durability of the forged parts.
• Continuous Grain Flow: Forging ensures a continuous grain flow, which improves the overall structural integrity and performance of the component.
• Corrosion Resistance: Forged stainless steel maintains or even enhances its original corrosion resistance, making it suitable for demanding environments.

Selecting the right stainless steel grade for forging involves a careful assessment of the operating environment, mechanical requirements, formability, and cost. By considering these factors, manufacturers can ensure the production of high-quality forged components that meet specific application needs.

Step-by-Step Guide to Forging Stainless Steel

Heating the Billet

The forging process begins with heating the stainless steel billet to make it malleable. The required temperature varies by grade, typically ranging between 926°C and 995°C. Precise heating is crucial to avoid defects like grain coarsening.

Shaping the Billet

Once heated, the billet is placed into a die and high compressive forces are applied using hammers or presses. This shapes the billet and enhances its mechanical properties, requiring 30-50% more force than carbon steel due to its strength and resistance.

Machining and Surface Refinement

After forging, the piece may need further machining to achieve the desired shape and surface finish. Techniques like broaching refine the surfaces, ensuring the final product meets specifications.

Heat Treatment

Heat treatment is essential to achieve the required mechanical properties. This includes:

• Annealing: Heating and slow cooling to relieve stress and improve ductility.
• Quenching: Rapid cooling to increase hardness and strength.
• Tempering: Reheating to reduce brittleness and enhance toughness.

Finishing Techniques

Finishing techniques enhance the forged stainless steel’s properties:

• Passivation: Removes contaminants to improve corrosion resistance.
• Electropolishing: Creates a smooth, reflective finish.
• Mechanical Finishing: Alters the surface texture for better appearance.

Compliance with Standards

Finally, the forged stainless steel products must comply with industry standards such as ASTM A182 and ASME B16.11. Adhering to these standards ensures the quality and performance of the forged components, making them suitable for demanding applications in various industries.

Common Challenges and Solutions in Forging Stainless Steel

Challenges in Forging Stainless Steel

Resistance to Deformation

Stainless steel is strong and resistant to corrosion due to its high chromium content, making it popular for many uses. However, these qualities also make it challenging to forge. The material’s resistance to deformation causes it to work-harden quickly, requiring higher temperatures and precise control during forging. This challenge can be addressed by employing advanced forging techniques and equipment capable of handling the necessary high forces effectively.

High Melting Point

Forging stainless steel is challenging due to its high melting point, requiring temperatures between °F and °F. Maintaining these temperatures is essential to avoid cracking and keep the material workable. Sophisticated heating systems and precise temperature control are necessary to prevent overheating or underheating, which can negatively impact the material’s properties.

Risk of Carbide Precipitation

During heat treatment, stainless steel can form chromium carbides, especially in high-carbon grades. This process reduces the chromium available to prevent corrosion and decreases the material’s toughness. Techniques such as quenching and annealing are crucial to prevent this phenomenon, ensuring the material maintains its desired properties.

Material Ductility and Plasticity

Forging temperature and heating time affect stainless steel’s ductility and plasticity. Careful control of these factors is crucial to avoid cracks and defects. High ductility allows for the desired shaping without fractures, while sufficient plasticity ensures the material can be deformed under compressive forces. Controlled heating methods like induction heating can provide the necessary precision.

Advanced Heating Techniques

Using advanced heating methods like induction and laser heating improves the forging process by providing precise temperature control, reducing oxidation, and preserving surface quality. Induction heating ensures uniform heat distribution, minimizing thermal stress and unwanted hardening, which is essential for maintaining the material’s properties and achieving high-quality forged components.

Proper Tooling and Equipment

High-power hammers and presses are essential for overcoming stainless steel’s resistance to deformation. Proper tooling ensures efficient metalworking, allowing for accurate shaping of the material. High-power equipment can apply the necessary forces to deform stainless steel without causing defects, enabling the production of complex and high-strength components.

Heat Treatment

Post-forging heat treatment is crucial for relieving stresses and enhancing the mechanical properties of forged stainless steel. Techniques like recrystallization annealing and quenching and tempering are vital for achieving the desired toughness and corrosion resistance. Recrystallization annealing helps refine the grain structure, while quenching and tempering balance hardness and ductility.

Material Selection

Choosing the appropriate stainless steel grade based on application requirements is essential for successful forging. Grades such as 304 and 316 offer specific performance characteristics suited to different environments. For instance, 304 stainless steel is known for its excellent corrosion resistance and formability, making it suitable for a wide range of applications. Selecting the right grade ensures that the forged component meets the necessary performance criteria.

Controlled Cooling

Proper cooling methods are essential for preventing internal stresses and cracks in forged stainless steel. For example, austenitic stainless steels typically require air cooling, while martensitic grades benefit from slow cooling to avoid stress and cracking. Controlled cooling ensures the material retains its mechanical properties and structural integrity after forging.

Good Furnace Loading Practices

Uniform heating during forging can be achieved by using good furnace loading practices. Elevating workpieces on piers and ensuring even spacing helps maintain consistent temperatures throughout the material. This practice reduces the risk of overheating and ensures that the entire workpiece is uniformly heated, leading to better forging results and higher quality components.

Frequently Asked Questions

Below are answers to some frequently asked questions:

Can you forge stainless steel?

Yes, stainless steel can be forged, though it presents several challenges due to its high strength at elevated temperatures and potential for work-hardening. The process requires precise temperature control, typically between °F and °F, depending on the grade, and specialized equipment to manage its hardness and ensure uniform deformation. Common grades used include 304/304L and 316/316L. Forging techniques such as open-die, closed-die, and upset forging are utilized, followed by heat treatments to enhance mechanical properties and corrosion resistance. Despite the challenges, forged stainless steel offers improved strength and durability, making it ideal for various applications.

What are the benefits of stainless steel forgings?

Stainless steel forgings offer several benefits, including high strength and durability due to refined grain structure, excellent corrosion resistance, and good thermal resistance, making them suitable for harsh environments. The forging process also ensures continuous grain flow, enhancing reliability and structural integrity. Additionally, stainless steel forgings are material-efficient, reducing waste and production costs, and although they may have a higher initial cost, their long service life leads to lower maintenance and replacement costs over time. These advantages make stainless steel forgings ideal for various applications in industries such as aerospace, marine, construction, and petrochemicals.

What stainless steel grades can be forged?

Stainless steel grades commonly forged include 304 and 316 from the 300 series (austenitic), which are known for their corrosion resistance and toughness; 410 and 420 from the 400 series (martensitic/ferritic), valued for their strength and hardness; duplex stainless steels like , offering high strength and corrosion resistance; and precipitation hardening grades such as 17-4, 15-5, and 13-8, which provide high strength-to-corrosion ratios suitable for aerospace and medical applications. Each grade’s suitability depends on the specific mechanical and corrosion resistance properties required for the application.

How do you choose the right stainless steel grade for forging?

Choosing the right stainless steel grade for forging involves considering factors such as application requirements (corrosion resistance, mechanical properties), forging process needs (temperature control, energy and pressure), cost and availability, and aesthetic and functional needs. For instance, austenitic grades like 304 and 316 are preferred for their excellent corrosion resistance and ductility, while martensitic grades like 440C are chosen for high strength. Additionally, ensure the selected grade is readily available and fits within budget constraints. By analyzing these aspects, manufacturers can optimize the performance and durability of their stainless steel forgings.

What are the common challenges in stainless steel forging?

Common challenges in stainless steel forging include managing its high chromium content and rapid work-hardening, which necessitate higher forging temperatures and precise control. Maintaining proper temperature is crucial to avoid issues like cracking or grain coarsening. Specialized equipment and tooling are required due to the material’s strength and resilience, and proper die design is essential to prevent defects. Additionally, controlling grain growth and microstructure is critical to ensure desired mechanical properties, and effective heat treatment post-forging is necessary to relieve stresses and enhance properties like toughness and corrosion resistance.

What processes are involved in stainless steel forging?

The processes involved in stainless steel forging include material selection, where appropriate stainless steel grades are chosen based on required properties; heating the material to a malleable state within a temperature range of °F to °F; and employing forging techniques such as open-die, closed-die, or free forging to shape the metal. After forging, controlled cooling methods are used to relieve internal stresses, followed by heat treatment to enhance mechanical properties and corrosion resistance. Finally, finishing processes like machining and surface treatments are applied to achieve precise dimensions and improve durability and appearance.

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